Evolving Paradigms of Criminological Thought: A Comparative and Integrative Analysis of Social Control, Conflict, Modern, and Contemporary Theories

Abstract

Criminology as a discipline has undergone a dynamic transformation from early deterministic and control-based perspectives to complex, integrative, and humanistic frameworks that address the socio-political and cultural dimensions of crime. This paper undertakes a comparative and integrative analysis of major criminological theories under four broad paradigms: Social Control Theories, Social Conflict Theories, Modern Theories, and Contemporary Perspectives. Social Control theories, including Drift and Neutralization, Containment, and Social Bond theories, emphasize internal and external mechanisms that maintain conformity. Social Conflict theories, such as Labelling, Radical, Conflict, Critical, and Realist Criminology, foreground power relations, inequality, and systemic injustice. Modern theories like Routine Activities, Rational Choice, Broken Windows, Feminist, Masculinity, Life Course, Integrated, and Space Transition theories incorporate multidisciplinary insights into crime causation and prevention. Finally, Contemporary Perspectives—such as Cultural, News-making, Peacemaking, Green, Visual, Cyber, Positive, and Translational Criminology—redefine the field by addressing media influence, environmental crimes, digital deviance, and restorative justice. The paper synthesizes these diverse approaches to demonstrate the intellectual evolution of criminological inquiry—from structural determinism to agency, and from punishment to restoration—reflecting changing social realities and technological advancements. By comparing theoretical foundations, methodological orientations, and policy implications, the paper contributes to a holistic understanding of criminology as a multidimensional and evolving science.